Defining Permanency and Aboriginal Youth in Foster Care
Abstract
Poor outcomes associated with youth aging out of foster care are well documented. In recent years creative permanency planning projects have been heralded as promising alternatives to transition to adulthood programs with the aim of addressing this concern. In order to make permanency possible for youth the concept must be defined in a way that reflects the needs of those within this developmental stage. Researchers and youth have collaborated to create such definitions; however, few have considered a cultural element and none speak to specific populations, such as Aboriginal youth. There are significant differences between Western and Aboriginal world views which, in turn, influences the permanency need for children and youth. InAlberta,Canada, Aboriginal children and youth are vastly overrepresented in foster care. Addressing the needs of Aboriginal youth in a culturally appropriate manner is critical. Cultural considerations include ideals of collectivism versus individualism, identity formation and community healing. Yet, there is a deficit of literature related to the specific permanency needs of Aboriginal youth in foster care. Ecological theory informed by the Anishinabe medicine wheel framework provides a framework from which to discuss permanency planning for this population group. Further research exploring the views of Aboriginal youth in foster care on permanency and the utility of these models on this population is necessary.
References
Aboriginal peoples and communities. (2010, September 14). Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada. Retrieved from http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100013785
Alberta Human Services, Government of Alberta (2013). Enhancement policy manual. Retrieved from http://humanservices.alberta.ca/documents/Enhancement-Act-Policy-Manual.pdf
Anderson, K. (2000). A recognition of being: reconstructing Native womanhood.
Toronto, ON: Second Story Press.
Armitage, A. (1995). Comparing the policy of aboriginal assimilation: Australia,
Canada and New Zealand. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.
Arnett, J. J. (2004). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through
the twenties. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Arnett, J. J., & Taber, S. (1994). Adolescence terminable and interminable: When does
adolescence end? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 23(5), 517−537.
Atwood, B. A. (2008). Achieving permanency for American Indian and Alaska Native children: Lessons from tribal traditions. Capital University Law Review, 37(239), 239-292.
Avery, R. (2010). An examination of theory and promising practice for achieving permanency for teens before they age out of foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 32, 399-408.
Barth, R. P. (1986). Emancipation services for adolescents in foster care. Social Work, 31(3), 165-171.
Barth, R. P. (1990). On their own: The experiences of youth after foster care. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 7(5), 419-440.
Barth, R. P., Lee, C. K., Wildfire, J. & Guo, S. (2005). A comparison of the governmental costs of long-term foster care and adoption. Social Service Review, 80(1), 127-158.
Baskin, C. (2007). Aboriginal youth talk about structural determinants as the causes of their homelessness. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 3(3), 31-42.
Bennett, M., Blackstock, C. and De La Ronde, R. (2005). A literature review and
annotated biography on aspects of aboriginal child welfare in Canada (2nd ed.). Retrieved from the Canadian Child Welfare Research Portal website: http://www.cecw-cepb.ca/sites/default/files/publications/en/AboriginalCWLitReview_2ndEd.pdf
Bertsch, M. (2010). Why is adoption like a First Nations feast?: Lax kw'alaam indigenizing adoptions in child welfare. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 5(1), 96-105.
Brendtro, L. K. (2006). The vision of Urie Bronfenbrenner: Adults who are crazy about
kids. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 15, 162-166.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In M. Gauvain & M. Cole (Eds.), Readings on the development of children. (2nd ed., pp. 37-43). NY: Freeman.
California Permanency for Youth Project. (2005, April). Seneca center: Helping children and youth through their most difficult times. Retrieved from http://www.senecacenter.org/files/cpyp/Files/2005%20Convening%20Summary.doc
Cajete, G. (2000). Native science: Natural laws of interdependence. Santa Fe, CA: Clear
Light Publishers.
Canadian Coalition for the Rights of Children. (2011). Children’s rights in Canada 2011
working document: Right to family, identity and culture. Retrieved from the Canadian Coalition for the Rights of Children website: http://rightsofchildren.ca/wp-content/uploads/working-document-right-to-family-and-culture-research.pdf
Carriere, J. (2008). Maintaining identities: The soul work of adoption and aboriginal
children. Pimatisiwin: A Journal of Aboriginal and Indigenous Community Health, 6(1), 61-80.
Casey Family Services, Annie E. Casey Foundation. (2008). Proceedings from the
research roundtable: National convening on child welfare and permanence. Retrieved from http://www.aecf.org/~/media/Pubs/Topics/Child%20Welfare%20Permanence/Other/ProceedingsfromResearchRountableatNatlConveni/permanency_proceedings_final.pdf
Child, Youth and Family Enhancement Act, Chapter C-12. (2000). Retrieved from
http://www.qp.alberta.ca/574.cfm?page=c12.cfm&leg_type=Acts&isbncln=978077973942
Children and Youth Services, Government of Alberta. (2011). Children and Youth Services annual report. Retrieved from http://www.child.alberta.ca/home/538.cfm
Children and Youth Services, Government of Alberta. (2010). Business plan. Retrieved from http://www.finance.alberta.ca/publications/budget/budget2010/children-youth-services.pdf
Collins, M., & Clay, C. (2009). Influencing policy for youth transitioning from care: Defining problems, crafting solutions, and assessing politics. Children and Youth Services Review, 31, 743-751.
Courtney, M. E., Dworsky, A., Lee, J. S., & Rapp, M. (2010). Midwest evaluation of the
adult functioning of former foster youth: Outcomes at age 23 & 24. Retrieved from Chapin Hall website: http://www.chapinhall.org/sites/default/files/Midwest_Study_Age_23_24.pdf
Davis, M. A. (2009). Foster care youth: Aging out of care to criminal activities. In J.
Savage (Ed.), The development of persistent criminality (pp. 231-249). New York: Oxford University Press.
Erich, S. & Leung, P. (1998). Factors contributing to family functioning of adoptive
children with special needs: A longitudinal outcome analysis. Children and Youth Services Review, 20(1/2), 135-222.
Filbert, K. M., & Flynn, R. J. (2010). Developmental and cultural assets and resilient outcomes in First Nations young people in care: An initial test of an explanatory model. Children and Youth Services Review, 32, 560-564.
Fournier, S. & Crey, E. (1997). Stolen from our embrace. Vancouver, BC: Douglas and McIntyre.
Frey, L., Greenblatt, S., & Brown. J. (2005). A call to action: An integrated approach to youth permanency and preparation for adulthood. Retrieved from Casey Family Services website:
http://www.caseyfamilyservices.org/pdfs/casey_permanency_0505.pdf
Fruendlich, M., Avery, R. J., Muson, S., & Gerstenzang, S. (2006). The meaning of permanency in child welfare: Multiple stakeholder perspectives. Children and Youth Services Review, 28, 741-760.
Gitterman, A. (2011). Advances in the life model of social work practice. In F. J. Turner (Ed.), Social work treatment: Interlocking theoretical approaches (pp. 279-292). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Goforth, S. (2007). Aboriginal healing methods for residential school abuse and intergenerational effects: A review of the literature. Native Social Work Journal, 6, 11-32.
Goodman, D. (Speaker). (10 November 2011). Making permanency happen for every child [Conference]. Calgary, AB.
Harris, M. S., Jackson, L. J., O'Brien, K., & Pecora, P. J. (2009). Disproportionality in education and employment outcomes of adult foster care alumni. Children and Youth Services Review, 31, 1150-1159.
Jacobs, T. J. & Everall, R. D. (2009). How I got there: Stories of resilience in foster care alumni. The University of Public Administration. Retrieved from http://www.enap.ca/site/docs/Tania%20Jacobs.pdf
Jarboe, K. L., & Agosti, J. (2011). Independent living program transformation in California: Lessons learned about working with older youth and implications for permanency. American Humane Association, 11-29.
Jenness, D. (1977). The Indians of Canada, 7th edn. Ottawa: University of Toronto Press.
Johnston B. (1988). Indian school days. Toronto, ON: Key Porter.
Jones, L., & Kruk, E. (2005). Life in government care: The connection of youth to family. Child & Youth Care Forum, 34(6), 405-421.
Lafrance, B. (2000). Culturally negotiated education in first nations community: Empowering ourselves for future generations. In C. Brant, L. Davis & L. Lahache (Eds.), Aboriginal education: Fulfilling the promise. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.
Longclaws, L. N. (1994). Social work and the medicine wheel framework. In B. R.
Compston & B. Galaway (Eds.), Social work processes. (5th ed., pp. 24-34). Toronto, Canada: McGraw-Hill.
Louisell, M. J. (2009). Six steps to find a family: A practice guide to family search and
engagement. Retrieved from Center for Child Welfare website: http://centerforchildwelfare.fmhi.usf.edu/kb/Prgprac/Six%20Steps%20to%20Find%20a%20Family.pdf
Milloy, J. (1999). A national crime: The Canadian government and the residential school
system, 1879 to 1986. Winnipeg, MB: University of Manitoba Press.
Mussell, B., Cardiff, K., & White, J. (2004). The mental health and well-being of Aboriginal children and youth: Guidance for new approaches and services. Retrieved from Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations website: http://www.fsin.com/healthandsocial/childportal/images/Mental%20health%20needs%20of%20Aboriginal%20Children%20and%20Youth.pdf
Never too old: Achieving permanency and sustaining connections for youth in foster
care. (July 2011). Evan B. Donaldson Adoption Institute. Retrieved from Adoption Institute website: http://www.adoptioninstitute.org/research/2011_07_never_too_old.php
North American Council of Adoptable Children. (2009). It’s time to make older child adoption a reality: Because every child and youth deserves a family. Retrieved from North American Council of Adoptable Children website: http://www.nacac.org/adoptalk/MakeOlderChildAdoptionReality.pdf
Park, T. M. (2003). In the best interests of the Aboriginal child. Windsor Review of Legal and Social Issues, 16(43), 43-70.
Permanency planning. (2007). North Central Alberta Child and Family Services. Retrieved January 30, 2012, from http://www.northcentralalbertacfsa.gov.ab.ca/home/517.cfm
Phinney, J. S. (1993). A three-stage model of ethnic identity development in adolescence.
In M. E. Bernal & G. P. Knight (Eds.). Ethnic identity: Formation and transmission among Hispanics and other minorities. (pp. 61-79). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Porter, J. (2013, August 8). Ear experiments done on kids at Kenora residential school.
CBC News. Retrieved from www.cbc.ca
Raising the roof. (2009). Youth homelessness in Canada: The road to solutions.
Retrieved from Raising the Roof website: http://www.raisingtheroof.org/RaisingTheRoof/media/RaisingTheRoofMedia/Documents/RoadtoSolutions_fullrept_english.pdf
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. (1996). People to people, nation to nation:
Highlights of the royal commission on Aboriginal peoples. Ottawa, ON: Canada Communication Group.
Rutman, D., Hubberstey, C., & Feduniw, A. (2007). When youth age out of care - Where to from there? Retrieved from University of Victoria website: http://socialwork.uvic.ca/
Saggers, S. & Sims, M. (2005). Diversity: Beyond the nuclear family. In Poole, M. (Ed.), Family: Changing families, changing times. (pp. 66-87). Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
Samuels, G. M. (2009). Ambiguous loss of home: The experience of familial (im)permanence among young adults with foster care backgrounds. Children and Youth Services Review, 31, 1229-1239.
Sanchez, R. M. (2004). Youth perspectives on permanency. Retrieved from Seneca Center website: http://www.senecacenter.org/files/cpyp/Files/YouthPerspectives.pdf
Smith, A. (2009). Aboriginal adoptions in Saskatchewan and British Columbia: An evolution to save or lose our children. Canadian Journal of Family Law, 25(2), 297-367.
Statistics Canada. (2011). National household survey profile: Aboriginal peoples. (Catalogue number 99-011-X2011033). Retrieved May 8, 2013 from Statistics Canada: http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=105394&PRID=0&PTYPE=105277&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2013&THEME=94&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=
Teichroeb, Ruth. (1997). Flowers on my grave: How an Ojibwa boy’s death helped break the silence of child abuse. Toronto, ON: HarperCollins Publishers Ltd.
Tilbury, C. & Osmond, J. (2006). Permanency planning in foster care: A research review and guidelines for practitioners. Australian Social Work, 59(3), 265-280.
Totten, M. (2009). Aboriginal youth and violent gang involvement in Canada: Quality prevention strategies. IPC Review, 3, 135-156.
Triseliotis, John. (2002). Long-Term Foster Care or Adoption? The Evidence Examined. Child and Family Social Work, 7(1), 23-33.
United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child. (1989, November 20). Retrieved from the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights website: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm
Unrau, Y. A., Seita, J. R., & Putney, K. S. (2008). Former foster youth remember multiple placement moves: A journey of loss and hope. Children and Youth Services Review, 30, 1256-1266.
Voyageur, C. J., & Caillou, B. (2001). Various shades of red: Diversity within Canada's Indigenous community. London Journal of Canadian Studies, 16, 109-124.
Walmsley, C. (2005). Protecting aboriginal children. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.
Walters, D. (2011). What finding permanency means from a youth perspective. American Humane Association, 8-10.
